Ancient Hindu Scriptures: An Ever-flowing River Of Knowledge

     For Hindus, scriptures have most powerful influence in everyday life: “The man who rejects the words of the scriptures and follows the impulse of desire attains neither his perfection, nor joy, nor the Path Supreme. Let the scriptures be, therefore, thy authority as to what is right and what is not right.” (Bhagavad Gita, 16: 23–24). The spiritual richness of the ancient Hindu scriptures is simply unmatched, but the volume of these scriptures is even more amazing. The very first scriptures were the four Vedas. These scriptures comprise the divine revelations, the Srutis. As such, they have been considered the basis and command of Hinduism. The Upanishads, which are the essence and final culmination of the Vedas, also form part of the Sruti scriptures. 

    Two great epic scriptures, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, soon followed the Vedas/Upanishads. These scriptures and others that followed were formed as Smritis, the ones that were remembered. The Vedic scriptures had a strict code of finality. The Smriti scriptures of the later period had no such compulsions. One example may explain: Vedas teach that no violence be done to any being. This, however, would prove to be an impossible position in certain circumstances. The Smriti scriptures, on the other hand, encouraged modifications as the situation demanded, according to place and time. Smriti scriptures are derived from human experience and are the bedrock of tradition, continuing from the ancient and into modern. The Smriti scriptures may be varied according to the sect (sampradaya), and may be written in languages other than Sanskrit.

     The earliest written script for the Hindu scriptures was the Vedic Sanskrit Brahmi, as early as the seventh century BCE. Classical Sanskrit, which is also associated with the proto-Indo-European languages and is considered the mother of many-Indianas well as European—languages came to become prominent in fourth century CE. It adapted the present Devnagri script in the tenth century CE. It is said that Sanskrit is phonetically the most accurate language. Its grammar is also most correctly built. Its constitution was so perfect that no word could have any variation of pronunciation or meaning and denotation. Each syllable (akshara) in the Vedas is endowed with significance and purpose, imparting to it a cosmic energy in a spiritual manner. Many experts suggest that it would be the most ideal language for computer technology.14 Says Swami Vivekananda, “The vast ancient literature of India was written in Sanskrit, which was never a spoken language! It was only used for writing the scriptures, epics, and dramas, etc.”15 It thus became truly a classic language of India. In the absence of paper, the ancient Hindu scriptures were originally written on dried palm leaves. Sir William Jones first established its relationship with other European languages in 1789.16

     Different ethnic groups, however, retained much of their original linguistics and folklore, apart from influencing the mainstream Sanskrit. India today has nearly thirty languages and over five hundred dialects in use. All these languages originated from four important groups: Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Dravidian, and Indo-Aryan. The earliest was the Austro-Asian, which group passed by the Indian subcontinent from Africa on its way to Australia about fifty thousand years ago.17 In the long history of existence—over six million years—mankind perhaps began the journey of writing only around five thousand years ago or little earlier.

     Apart from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the Smritis recognize a number of other important texts. The Bhagavad Gita, which forms a part of the Mahabharata, is considered the authoritative vehicle of Hinduism and its philosophy. The Dharma Shastras are specialized manuals that deal with different subjects such as law, politics, and economics. Manu Smriti, the Book of Manu, gives exhaustive details of the codes of conduct for all occasions. Even though there now may be some areas of disagreement, this treatise has long held its powerful influence in framing the laws for Hindu society. Manu, who is the mythological son of Lord Brahma, is thus considered the origin of mankind in Hindu philosophy. Manu literally means “thinking mind” and is therefore regarded as the symbolic beginning of higher thinking in human beings. Other scriptures in this category include Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti. 

     Niti Shastra, written by a clever prime minister of the Maurya dynasty named Chanakya (329–297 BCE), has been hailed as an authoritative treatise on politics and administration. Artha Shastra and Kautilya Shastra deal with economics, law, politics, and the like. 

     The Darshanas are texts that explain and comment on the main Vedas/Upanishads. 

    The Sankhya philosophy by Kapila recognizes no personal God. It deals with the forces of Purusha, the Immanent Divine, using prakriti matter as a vehicle for its emancipation. 

     The Purva Mimamsa philosophy by Jaimini hails the Vedas as the absolute authority. The rituals as described in the Vedas would lead an individual to the supreme stage of salvation, moksha. Rituals are the stepping-stones for performing duties in various stages of life. Purav means old, and thus it relates to the original Vedas as the main scriptures.

     The Uttara Mimamsa or Brahama Sutra by Vyasa describes the true and supreme nature of the Divine Brahman. This system of Hindu philosophy is now most accepted and is popularly known  as the Vedanta philosophy. Uttara means later, and it relates to the Upanishads and later scriptures.

      The Yoga Sutra by Patanjali describes the practices of Raja yoga and Hatha yoga through which union with the Divine may be achieved. The human soul merges into the Divine as its final evolution and emancipation.

(I have devoted a separate chapter in this book to yoga, as this subject has become extremely popular all around the globe) 

     The Nyaya philosophy by Gautama describes the logical analysis of the universe.
 The Vaisheshika philosophy by Kanada deals with the primary elements of which the universe is composed like earth, water, fire, air, ether, soul, mind, time, and space.18 In this philosophy, detailed accounts of atomic structures and their vibratory motions are discussed. 

     Different philosophies do not reflect opposing views. More likely, they portray different aspects of Hindu theology, complementing each other to present the full picture. 

     Apart from these different philosophical codes, there was yet another one: The Charvaka philosophy, which has been known as Hindu materialism. It is a philosophy that promotes pleasure seeking and is contrary to the Vedic teachings. Even though this philosophy was never accepted by mainstream society, its existence and promotion without any serious opposition indicates the extent of freedom of opinion in Hindu culture. 

     Agamas are the Smriti scriptures that were written as operating instructions for Hindu worship in the three main sects of Hindu faith. These scriptures are the manuals for the construction of temples and installation of the idols, and for conducting various rituals, worship ceremonies (pujas), and festivals. 

     There are three different sets of these scriptures:

Shaiva Agamas—worship of Lord Shiva
Vaishnava Agamas—worship of Lord Vishnu
Shakti Agamas—worship of many goddesses

    Puranas literally means ancient. The Puranas have been described as the Vedas of the common man. The complex language used in earlier scriptures has been substituted with simpler and easy-to understand descriptions. Hindu sages described the ancient tales and allegories in mythological style so that the ordinary person could understand the deep spiritual philosophy in a simple manner of faith and devotion. The Vedic concept of a formless and transcendental God was substituted by various images of the Divine, which could be more easily comprehended by the common person. Spiritual transformation through devotion (bhakti) became more popular in these scriptures. These scriptures also cut across the barriers of the caste system, as all sections of the society had access to them. There are a total of eighteen Puranas, in which the intricate philosophies are explained very candidly in tales and parables. Six Puranas each are dedicated to Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Shiva. These too are essentially morality books, in which God often confronts evil in one form or another and assures the victory of righteousness over unrighteousness. The exact date of the Puranas is not known, but it is likely to be in the early centuries of the Common Era. Amongst the Puranic scriptures, Srimad Bhagavad occupies a very special place in Hindu society. Few passages in these Puranic scriptures have been considered inappropriate in language and narration. Some modern Hindu swamis have urged followers to ignore
such writings and pay more attention to the real spiritual teachings.19 

     Panchatantra (five books)—a wise sage Vishnusharma wrote these scriptures around 200 CE. These scriptures contain stories of animals, through which human weaknesses and vices were portrayed very effectively. These books have now become popular for teaching children about morality. 

     Tantra—the Tantra scriptures are mostly dedicated to the Shakta philosophy of Hinduism, although there are also separate Saiva and Vaishnav scriptures of this tradition also. There are sixty-four Tantra texts, which were written in the middle part of the first millennium and later.20 These texts are devoted to many techniques, which have been formulated to invoke spirituality and divinity in man. The Tantra techniques deal with the arousing of the dormant spiritual energy of the body by the divine spark of meditations and other methods. Some of these Tantra techniques, like Kriya yoga and Kundalini yoga, have gained popularity in many different parts of the world, apart from India. The other aspect of the Tantra philosophy, however, in which the primordial energy is aroused by the practice of sexual techniques, partaking of meat and wine, and dubious methods of black magic, has been seriously questioned by many and has now become taboo in most places. 

     Yantras and mandalas—geometrical patterns of upward-pointing triangles (symbolic of the male, or shiva aspect) and downward pointing triangles (symbolic of the female, or shakti aspect)—also form a part of the Tantras. The union of the Shakti component with the divine Shiva within oneself forms the ritual of Sricakra.21 

     The rituals of the mantras, yantras, and mandalas have been quite popular in Hindu theology. These have been grouped as the divine knowledge, Sri Vidya. 

     Yoga Vasishtha—it is believed that this scripture was written in the seventh century. It deals with the spiritual teachings that sage Vasishtha delivered to Lord Rama, just as in the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna gave his instruction to Arjuna. It contains incisive discussion on all Hindu philosophical thoughts in a poetic language. 

     Commentaries on Hindu scriptures written later by Shankaracharya (700–740 CE), Ramanujacharya (1017–1137 CE), and Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE) also must be mentioned for their great merit in relation to the ancient Hindu philosophy.22

     There are many more supplements, commentaries, and manuscripts in other ancient languages, such as Pali, Tamil, and some regional languages. Most prominent among these are Tirukural and allied Tamil scriptures. Tirukural was written in the first century BCE and is regarded as the Holy Bible of Saivites. Tirukural, however, hailed the Vedas as the most superior spiritual guidelines. The grand, seven-thousand-ton statue of Saint Tiruvalluvar, author of this poetic scripture, adorns Kanya Kumari, where the three seas—the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea—merge together.

     The list of Hindu scriptures is almost unending and nearly impossible to present in full; even so vast an amount of sacred writings has been lost or destroyed over the centuries.  One single individual did not start Hinduism; so, too, it does not have a single scripture as the sole authority. 

     If written word is any indicator of the level of civilization, the old Hindu scriptures certainly project a glorious and shining portrait of the culture of India during the ancient period. No wonder that ancient India became the chief hub of education. The first university in the world was established in Takshila in 700 BCE, where scholars from many other countries would come for higher studies. The University of Nalanda in the fourth century CE was one of the greatest achievements in the field of education in Hindu civilization. The ancient philosophy of India, the legacy of prehistoric oral tradition, also gave birth to the Sramana ideology of renunciation and meditation, which attracted scholars from many lands.23 Sanskrit occupied a place of highest pride during this period, spreading its influence far and wide. It is even probable that the Greek masters Plato (427–347 BCE) and Aristotle (385–322 BCE) had contact with Hindu teachings.24

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