Jainism: Renunciation and Nonviolence

     Jainism started with Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who was an elder contemporary of Buddha. Jains, however, believe that he was the last of the twenty-four Tirthankaras (liberated souls). His immediate predecessor, Parsvanatha, is also a historical figure who lived in the eighth century BCE. It is believed that the first Tirthankara was Rushabhadeva, who probably lived around 8500 years ago. The naked standing figures (kayotsarga) of the Indus-Saraswati civilization are considered to be the representations of Rushabhadeva.68 He had a son Bharata, after whom the name Bharat was expediently adopted for ancient India.69

      The roots of the Jain philosophy go toward the distant past to the prehistoric era of the Indian subcontinent, when meditation, an ascetic way of living, and vegetarianism seemingly first found their place in human history. These philosophical concepts became established as the ancient Indian ideology of the oral tradition, which in course of time would feed all the emerging spiritual philosophies, including Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Later, it became known in part as Sramana ideology, which became more identified with the religions of Jainism and Buddhism. Sraman in Sanskrit means monk.70

      The possibility of the common origin of all these religions is thus very strong. The teachings are similar in many respects. The basic concepts of Hinduism—namely karma, reincarnation, and moksha—are also seen in Jainism, Buddhism, and later in Sikhism. These concepts are unique to the religions of Indian origin and are therefore a strong binding factor for this group of religions.

     It was in the period of Mahavira and Buddha, however, that certain castes in Hindu society started to protest against the dominance and authority of the Brahmin upper classes of Aryan origin—the Brahmins set themselves apart as exclusive intermediaries between mortals and the Divine Supreme. There was also protest against animal sacrifices in the rituals (karma kanda). The ritual of animal sacrifice was of Aryan origin and was mainly responsible for the meat-eating habits of the community. On the other hand, there is evidence to suggest that the pre-Aryans of the Indus civilization had established a system of prayer, without animal sacrifices, chiefly through the techniques of meditation.

      Jainism owes its origin to the philosophy of Jina, the conqueror. Jina was coined when Mahavira returned after twelve years of rigorous ascetic practices to win complete control over the erring and destructive mind; he started to preach the Jaina path of purification of the soul. The philosophy of Jaina proclaims that only in a human birth would man receive the opportunity to redeem himself through self-realization and liberate himself from the continuing cycle of birth and death. Jainism also lays very strong emphasis on non-injury and nonviolence. It thus inducted the highest doctrine of freedom for all creatures.

     Many centuries before the modern concepts of democracy and individual freedom, Jainism delved deeply into such philosophical thought. It gave the world the philosophy of anekta, the concept of different points of view. It is hard to imagine how the ancient sages of India could have conceived such thoughts, which appear ultra modern even today. They taught nonviolence in thought, word, and action. The world is only now slowly coming to grips with these ideas, which are finally being embraced as the ideal way to live in a plural society. The philosophy of non-absolutism was a tool against dogmatism, which perhaps is the root cause of many human conflicts.71 These bold, ancient concepts would become a challenge to the morality of blind faith in the name of nationalism, religion, or ideology, as practiced even in our own time.72

      The ancient Indian philosophy of ahimsa went beyond ordinary nonviolence. It is the true gentleness in preventing the subtlest harm to anyone. Ahimsa has occupied special attention in Indian culture through different periods of time: There is clear call for ahimsa in the earliest scriptures, the Vedas. In the epic of the Mahabharata, there is mention of “ahimsa parmo dharma”—non-injury is the prime religion. The teaching of one universal all-pervasive divinity as propagated in the Upanishads creates an attitude of reverence, benevolence, and compassion for all animate and inanimate beings. Belief in the philosophy of karma envisages that all that we send out to others in thought, word, or deed will return to us, in this life or in future reincarnations by some cosmic process.

     Patanjali (200 BCE) regards ahimsa as a precondition (yama) and a vow before embarking in the training of yoga. Two thousand years ago, saint Tiruvalluvar said it so simply: “All suffering recoils on the wrongdoer himself. Thus, those desiring not to suffer should refrain from causing others pain” (Tirukural, 320). A similar view can be found in the Jain Acharanga Sutra: “To do harm to others is to do harm to oneself. You are he whom you intend to kill. We kill ourselves as soon as we intend to kill others.” Jain scriptures mention two types of violence or himsa: actual hurting or killing (dravya himsa), which includes even verbal hurting and abuse; and intention of hurting or killing (bhava himsa). In many respects, bhava himsa is considered to be more harmful and wicked.73 Jains have championed the cause of nonviolence beyond measure. Jain believers not only are vegetarian, but they also take special precautions to avoid hurting even the smallest of the creatures, such as insects and worms, if these come across their paths. No wonder, then, many felt these teachings were too difficult to be practical in everyday life. Only monks were to lead a life of extreme simplicity, devoid of the most common facilities and conveniences. Jain monks cover long distances, walking barefoot lest they may hurt any  creatures underneath their feet by wearing shoes. They wear a cloth mask in front of their mouths to prevent the inadvertent swallowing of any organisms in the air. They eat the simplest food, avoiding eating any root vegetables, for example, which may contain living germs. The Jain monks and even the laity hold extended fasts for many days in order to purify their souls. Even though Buddha shifted his stance in favor of a moderate middle path, the position taken by Mahavira was un-compromising in this regard.  

    When Mahavira started this religion, he also introduced the order of female priests, which in itself was a revolutionary action in its time. Once again, female suppression of the earlier period was confronted. Strict adherence to the principle of renunciation, however, divided the Jain society into two divisions: the Digambaras—the sky-clad—in which the monks would be totally naked, as any possession, including even a piece of cloth, was unacceptable; and the Svetambaras, in which the monks wore white robes. These extreme attitudes would soon become socially unpractical. Even though the male monks in the Digambara sect were naked, the Jain nuns were not required to be without clothes. Over the course of time, all the harsh restrictions were confined to only the monks and nuns, but the laity was relieved from many constraints. Indeed, most of the lay devotees preferred becoming well placed financially, well fed, and well dressed. They were, of course, expected to observe the principle of the three jewels of Jain teaching: right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct. Jainism also propagated strongly modest living, charity, and strict vegetarianism.

     There are, at present, about ten million Jains residing mainly in India, mostly in Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. There are also significant numbers in the United States as well as other Western countries. Earlier, Jainism did not spread beyond India, as there were severe travel restrictions for the Jain monks; there also was disinterest in the Jain community for propagating their faith to others. Today, Jains have invested their assets in more productive and philanthropic fields. Jain temples are world famous for their artwork, especially in marble. They are also very astute in trade and commerce and are leaders in many business ventures. They avoid any activity that would involve violence, and they do not engage in trades engaged in leatherwork or any commerce involving the use of animals for profit. The right method of livelihood occupied the attention of the ancient Indian mind very seriously. Many ancient concepts of Jainism compare favorably with modern ideas, such as the rights of animals, the preservation of wild life, and ecological issues.

Mahavira preached thus:
He who knows what is bad for himself knows what is bad for others, and he who knows what is bad for others knows what is bad for himself. One whose mind is at peace and who is free from passion does not desire to live at the expense of others. He who understands the nature of sin against earth, water, air, fire, plants, and animals is a true sage and understands karma.74

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