Upanishads: Culmination of the Vedas

    The Upanishads or Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) are the scriptures that contain the essence of the Vedic philosophy. “Upanishad” literally means “learning at the feet of,” meaning “at the feet of a Master.” Thus was born the ancient guru system in Hindu society. In each of the Vedas, there are two main divisions: the Karma Kanda deals with the rituals, and the Jnana Kanda, deals with knowledge or wisdom. The Upanishads are part of the Jnana Kanda. The guru would lead his pupil (shishya), step by step, to the stage whereby the pupil recognized the Self, or the Divine in himself. This is indeed the avowed final destination of a Hindu life.

     These learning discussions are also known as samvada—the teacher talks and the student listens. The student can ask questions to clarify genuine doubts, but the topics under consideration only deal with knowledge of the Divine (Brahmvidya).

      Discovering the Divine, or Self, within also implies elevating oneself to the highest spiritual status. This is, in reality, the sacred stage of all virtuous conduct. The Upanishads are therefore considered a road map, complete with a “guru guide,” to reach the highest peak of human development. Most of the Upanishads are the reproduction of the dialogues and discussions between the teacher and his pupils—the guru and his shishyas. The Upanishads truly heralded free thought in Hindu society. In the Upanishads, we also see the identification of the sage (the Rishi) associated with each teaching program, a factor that was conspicuous by its absence in the Vedas. The Upanishads are basically the essence of the Vedas. The major Upanishads, or the Primary Upanishads, were formed along with the Vedas. These were compiled before the Buddhist era, around the seventh century BCE or earlier. The Vedas are vastly full of many prayers, rituals, and ceremonial verses. The learned gurus of the Upanishads brought the important teachings to the forefront and downplayed the teachings that were less relevant to mankind. The teachings were properly explained with correct interpretations.

     The earlier Upanishads (Brhadarayaka and Chandogya) relied strongly on the rituals used to interpret the spiritual knowledge. The later Upanishads became more and more liberated from the rituals, however, moving toward internal processes of meditation and personal religious experiences. It is more likely that some factions at this stage totally defied the orthodox Vedic supremacy and formed a separate group that advocated the ancient philosophy of renunciation and meditation, naming it as the Sramana ideology, which ultimately gave birth to Jainism and Buddhism.39 External rituals were subordinated to internal spiritual practices, called sadhanas. In the Upanishads, we also find the final climb of the human mind, beyond the senses and the mind, into the realm of spiritual realization. The rituals are meant to prepare grounds for learning the ultimate truth of the Divine and the spiritual laws—so, too, is the role of the guru—but when the rituals or gurus become the end, in and of themselves, the very purpose is lost. The rituals, however, did continue their influence and dominance in many different ways in the Hindu society. Even as the new religions and cults opposed and denounced the old rituals, they soon formed their own new rituals.

     Hindu thought continued to march with the passage of time. Newer Upanishads came into being. In the post-Buddhist and post-Shankaracharya eras, a number of minor Upanishads were created to impart the spiritual teachings to posterity. Indeed, even the writings of modern holy men and women might be regarded as divine revelation, thus maintaining an evolutionary continuity of the Hindu tradition.40

      The knowledge of the Vedas and Upanishads remained out of bounds for most common people for millennia. Dara Shuka, the Mogul emperor, was the first to translate some of these scriptures into Persian in the seventeenth century. French scholar Auquetail Duperron (1773–1805) first introduced the ancient Hindu philosophy to Western people by translating fifty Upanishads. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) made the first English translation. In 1876, Max Muller presented the German translation, along with extensive commentary. The world interest in these scriptures since that time has continued to grow unabated

     More than two hundred Upanishads are in writing. Among the 108 Upanishads available, the most important ones are Mundaka, Isha, Kena, Katha, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Prashna, Shvetashvatara, and Brihadaranyaka.

     The Vedas taught worship of the gods of nature, such as the sun, sky, wind, and fire. The Upanishads emphasized that behind the façade of these many gods, there is but one Supreme God. In fact, the concept of one universal God was also originally expressed in the Rig Veda itself:
 Ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti.
(One alone exists; sages call it by various names.)

      In the Upanishads, this ancient philosophical thought came to the forefront, overshadowing the idea of multiple gods, who were considered simply as the manifestation of the transcendental Supreme Divine. Modern world has adopted this concept of God more vigorously, especially in the face of the many religions and sects around the world. It is interesting to note that the Supreme Court of the United States recommended the use of the term “Supreme Being” in place of “God” in the Constitution of the United States, after hearing the plea in which the above quotation of the Rig Veda was presented.41 Ancient Hindu ideology was thus vindicated—and the universality of the Upanishads has attracted spiritual seekers around the world.

     As in the Upanishads, the main themes of spiritual wisdom of the Vedas were drawn out and condensed by the Rishis to augment proper understanding. Some of the most important hymns of the spiritual knowledge are reproduced.
     From the Chandogya Upanishad:
 Speech, eyes, ears, limbs, life are in union with spirit.
Thus, we see how the sages created the union between body and soul. Soul and body work together. Condemnation of the body and senses is not the right attitude. Putting the body to proper and good use is the right way.
 In the Chandogya Upanishad, a ponderous dialogue between Shwetaketu and his father guru, Uddalka:
Just as the salt dissolves in the water, so too the Divine pervades everywhere. It may not be visible, and yet its presence cannot be denied.

This great banyan tree has sprung from a tiny seed. So too, are all beings grown from the seed of the spirit. In the tiny seed, the banyan tree is not visible. So, too, we may not visualize the infinite cosmos, inside the spirit.
    The concept of the divine pervading in entire cosmos was emphasized.
    From the Isha Upanishad:

Everything belongs to the Supreme Self. Self is the supreme. It is everywhere and all powerful. It gives us the breath-to-breath to live. We may claim nothing as our own. A wise man sees unity in all.

Spiritual knowledge comes from austerity, self-control, and meditation

 The Vedic gods of nature are not disowned, but they are certainly subordinated. The subtle, formless, transcendental, spiritual God was conceived already in the Vedas, but now, in the Upanishads, this concept is highlighted and forcefully presented. The God is everywhere, in all beings and so, too, within one’s own self. We may therefore search for God within, rather than from without. This search is the long journey of self-realization. Introspection and meditation became the main teachings of the Upanishads.
     From the Kena Upanishad:
In the fight between the gods (devas) and demons (asuras), the Aryan gods of nature became victorious. The Supreme God Brahma asked the god of fire, Agni, “What power do you possess?”
“I can burn anything,” replied the Agni.
     But when Brahma placed a blade of grass before the Agni, he could not burn it.
     Brahma asked the same question to other gods, god of wind, Vayu, and god of rain, Indra. They, too, failed to perform what they claimed.

    This established the complete authority of the Supreme God. Upanishads repeatedly project the absolute authority of One Divine Brahman, above all others. The Vedic concept of many gods was subtly modified in the Upanishads.
     In the Mundaka Upanishad, we learn that: -knowledge is of two types: lower knowledge (Apara Vidya), which deals with the secular knowledge of grammar, sciences, rituals, astrology, etc.; and higher knowledge (Para Vidya), which deals with divine or spiritual knowledge.  

    Indeed, the Para Vidya is more concerned with the inner spiritual transformation of man than with only the book knowledge, which is
also considered to be the apara, or the lower knowledge.
 “As the flowing rivers disappear into the ocean, leaving their names
and forms, so the wise man, freed from name and form, attains the highest of the high—the eternal Parampurusha.”42
     Thus, in this portentous Upanishad, the concept of Brahman has been explained. Once again, it has been emphasized that only those who walk on the path of purity and renunciation can attain the spiritual truth.

     Swami Paramannanda, one of the pioneer gurus of Hindu philosophy in the West, writes:
In the Vedas, we find a clear distinction between what man calls his own self, the Jivatman, and the Divine Over-self, the Paramatman. The search for God is man’s eternal quest. Every person must do this for himself. The method of this individual search can be traced to the Upanishad teaching. It is not so much the learning of the Divine, which is important; it’s living like the Divine that is essential in this pursuit.

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